Five-Week, Low-Intensity Blood Flow Restriction Rowing Improves V̇o2max in Elite Rowers.

ABSTRACT: Held, S, Rappelt, L, Rein, R, Deutsch, J-P, Wiedenmann, T, and Donath, L. Five-week, low-intensity, blood flow restriction rowing improves V̇o2max in elite Rowers. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-This controlled intervention study examined the effects of low-intensity rowing with blood flow restriction (BFR) on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max), peak power output during ramp testing (PPO), and 2000-m time trial performance (P2k). Eleven, highly elite, male rowers (22.1 ± 1.6 years; 92.6 ± 3.8 kg; 1.93 ± 0.04 m; 7.9. ± 2.2 years rowing experience; 20.4 ± 2.0 h·w-1 training volume; 11.9 ± 1.1 session per week) trained 5 weeks without BFR (Base) followed by a 5-week BFR intervention period. BFR of the lower limb was applied through customized elastic wraps. BFR took place 3 times a week (accumulated net pBFR: 60 min·wk-1; occlusion per session: 2 times 10 min·session-1) and was used exclusively at low intensities (<2 mmol·L-1). V̇o2max, PPO, and P2k were examined before, between, and after both intervention periods. Bayesian's credible intervals revealed relevantly increased V̇o2max +0.30 L·min-1 (95% credible interval: +0.00 to +0.61 L·min-1) adaptations through BFR. By contrast, PPO +14 W (-6 to +34 W) and P2k -5 W (-14 to +3 W) were not noticeably affected by the BFR intervention. This study revealed that 15 sessions of BFR application with a cumulative total BFR load of 5 h over a 5-week macrocycle increased V̇o2max remarkably. Thus, pBFR might serve as a promising tool to improve aerobic capacity in highly trained elite rowers.

Analysis of contextualized intensity in Men's elite handball using graph-based deep learning.

Manual annotation of data in invasion games is a costly task which poses a natural limit on sample sizes and the level of granularity used in match and performance analyses. To overcome this challenge, this work introduces FAUPA-ML, a Framework for Automatic Upscaled Performance Analysis with Machine Learning, which leverages graph neural networks to scale domain-specific expert knowledge to large data sets. Networks were trained using position data of match phases (counter/position attacks), annotated manually by domain experts in 10 matches. The best network was applied to contextualize N = 539 matches of elite handball (2019/20-2021/22 German Men's Handball Bundesliga) with 86% balanced accuracy. Distance covered, speed, metabolic power, and metabolic work were calculated for attackers and defenders and differences between counters and position attacks across seasons analyzed with an ANOVA. Results showed that counter attacks are shorter, less frequent and more intense than position attacks and that attacking is more intense than defending. Findings show that FAUPA-ML generates accurate replications of expert knowledge that can be used to gain insights in performance analysis previously deemed infeasible. Future studies can use FAUPA-ML for large-scale, contextualized analyses that investigate influences of team strength, score-line, or team tactics on performance.

Data Processing Strategies to Determine Maximum Oxygen Uptake: A Systematic Scoping Review and Experimental Comparison with Guidelines for Reporting.

BACKGROUND: Gas exchange data from maximum oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]) testing typically require post-processing. Different processing strategies may lead to varying [Formula: see text] values affecting their interpretation. However, the exact processing strategies used in the literature have yet to be systematically investigated. Previous research investigated differences across methods at the group level only. METHODS: Out of a random sample, we investigated 242 recently published articles that measured [Formula: see text] during ramp tests. Reported data processing methods and their rationale were extracted. We compared the most common processing strategies on a data set of 72 standardized exercise tests in trained athletes. RESULTS: Half of the included studies did not report their data processing strategy and almost all articles failed to provide a rationale for the particular strategy chosen. Most studies use binned time averages to determine [Formula: see text], with a minority using moving time or moving breath averages. The processing strategies found in the literature can lead to mean differences in [Formula: see text] of more than 5% (range 0-7%) with considerable variation at the individual level. CONCLUSIONS: We advise researchers to change their processing strategy and use moving averages or digital filters instead of binned averages. Researchers should report their data processing strategy used to determine [Formula: see text]. We provide a reporting checklist of seven items that can function as a template for reporting.

Analysis of Motion Characteristics and Metabolic Power in Elite Male Handball Players.

While handball is characterized by repeated sprints and changes of direction, traditional player load models do not consider accelerations and decelerations. The aim of this study was to analyze the differences between metabolic power and speed zones for player load assessment with regard to the player role. Position data from 330 male individuals during 77 games from the 2019/20 German Men's Handball-Bundesliga (HBL) were analyzed, resulting in 2233 individual observations. Players were categorized into wings, backs and pivots. Distance covered in different speed zones, metabolic power, metabolic work, equivalent distance (metabolic work divided by energy cost of running), time spend running, energy spend running, and time over 10 and 20 W were calculated. A 2-by-3 mixed ANOVA was calculated to investigate differences and interactions between groups and player load models. Results showed that total distance was longest in wings (3568 ± 1459 m in 42 ± 17 min), followed by backs (2462 ± 1145 m in 29 ± 14 min), and pivots (2445 ± 1052 m in 30 ± 13 min). Equivalent distance was greatest in wings (4072.50 ± 1644.83 m), followed by backs (2765.23 ± 1252.44 m), and pivots (2697.98 ± 1153.16 m). Distance covered and equivalent distance showed moderate to large interaction effects between wings and backs (p < .01, ES = 0.73) and between wings and pivots (p < .01, ES = 0.86) and a small interaction effect between backs and pivots (p < .01, ES = 0.22). The results underline the need for individualized management of training loads and the potential of using information about locomotive accelerations and decelerations to obtain more precise descriptions of player load during handball game performance at the highest level of competition. Future studies should investigate the influence of physical performance on smaller match sequences, like ball possession phases.

Low-intensity climbing with blood flow restriction over 5 weeks increases grip and elbow flexor endurance in advanced climbers: A randomized controlled trial.

Grip and elbow flexor strength and endurance are crucial performance surrogates in competitive climbing. Thus, we examined the effects of blood flow restricted (BFR) climbing on grip and elbow flexor performance. Fifteen trained climbers (8 females; 20.8 ± 7.0 yrs; 1.72 ± 0.08 m; 63.0 ± 9.7 kg; 21.7 ± 2.7 IRCRCA grade) were either assigned to the intervention (BFR) or control (noBFR) group, using the minimization method (Strata: age, height, body mass, gender, and IRCRA grade). While BFR was used during low-intensity climbing training (2-times 10 min/session; 3-times/week), noBFR followed identical training protocols without BFR over 5 weeks. BFR of the upper limb was applied via customized pneumatic cuffs (occlusion pressure: 120 ± 23 mmHg, 75%; occlusion pressure). Endurance and strength performances were assessed via one-handed rung pulling (GripSTRENGTH), one-handed bent arm lock off at 90° (ArmSTRENGTH), static-intermitted finger hang (GripENDURANCE), and bent arm hang (ArmENDURANCE). Bayesian credible intervals revealed increased GripENDURANCE (+21 s (95% credible interval: -2 to 43 s)) and ArmENDURANCE +11 s (-5 to 27 s); adaptations via BFR. In contrast, GripSTRENGTH +4 N (-40 to 48 N) and ArmSTRENGTH +4 N (-68 to 75 N) were not affected by the BFR intervention. Fifteen cumulative sessions of BFR application with a cumulative total BFR load of 5 h over a 5 weeks macrocycle remarkably increased grip and elbow flexor endurance. Thus, BFR might serve as a promising means to improve relevant performance surrogates in trained climbers.

Blood flow restricted (BFR) climbing induced superior grip and elbow flexor endurance adaptations compared to non-restricted climbing training over a 5-week lasting training periodBFR and non-BFR climbing training induced similar grip and elbow flexor strength adaptationsTherefore, BFR served as a feasible, promising and beneficial complementary training stimuli additionally to the sheduled climbing training program.

Effects of body orientation and direction of movement on a knee joint angle reproduction test in healthy subjects: An experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Joint position sense test assess patient mobility and proprioceptive ability. Yet, application used under different conditions may biases reproduction error resulting in different therapeutic consequences. OBJECTIVE: To investigate knee angle reproduction test under different test conditions. METHODS: 25 healthy subjects (mean ± SD, age = 25 ± 2 years, activity level: 9 ± 2 training hours/week) performed knee angle reproduction test in the sitting and prone position, while changing the knee angle starting (i) from flexion and (ii) extension, (iii) inducing vibration on the semitendinosus tendon. RESULTS: Absolute mean knee angle reproduction error showed significant difference for body position and vibration (Position: 95% CI 0.71 to 2.32; p< 0.001. No Vibration & Vibration: 95% CI -1.71 to -0.12; p= 0.027). Relative knee angle reproduction error was significant different in all conditions (No Vibration & Vibration: 95% CI -3.30 to -0.45; p= 0.010. Body orientation: 95% CI 1.08 to 3.93; p< 0.001. Direction of movement: 95% CI 0.56 to 3.41; p= 0.007). CONCLUSION: Body orientation and movement direction influence the resulting knee angle reproduction error in healthy subjects. Practitioners are advised to use standardised test procedures when comparing different within- and between-patient results. TRIAL REGISTRATION: DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/AFWRP.

Low-intensity swimming with blood flow restriction over 5 weeks increases VO2peak: A randomized controlled trial using Bayesian informative prior distribution.

Peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and speed at first (LT1, minimal lactate equivalent) and second lactate threshold (LT2 = LT1 +1.5 mmol·L-1) are crucial swimming performance surrogates. The present randomized controlled study investigated the effects of blood flow restriction (BFR) during low-intensity swimming (LiT) on VO2peak, LT1, and LT2. Eighteen male swimmers (22.7 ±3.0 yrs; 69.9 ±8.5 kg; 1.8 ±0.1 m) were either assigned to the BFR or control (noBFR) group. While BFR was applied during LiT, noBFR completed the identical LIT without BFR application. BFR of the upper limb was applied via customized pneumatic cuffs (75% of occlusion pressure: 135 ±10 mmHg; 8 cm cuff width). BFR training took place three times a week over 5 weeks (accumulated weekly net BFR training: 60 min·week-1; occlusion per session: 2-times 10 min·session-1) and was used exclusively at low intensities. VO2peak, LT1, and LT2 diagnostics were employed. Bayesian credible intervals revealed notable VO2peak improvements by +0.29 L·min-1 kg-1 (95% credible interval: -0.26 to +0.85 L·min-1 kg-1) when comparing BFR vs. noBFR. Speed at LT1 -0.01 m·s-1 (-0.04 to +0.02 m·s-1) and LT2 -0.01 m·s-1 (-0.03 to +0.02 m·s-1) did not change meaningfully when BFR was employed. Fifteen sessions of LIT swimming (macrocycle of 5 h over 5 weeks) with a weekly volume of 60 min with BFR application adds additional impact on VO2peak improvement compared to noBFR LIT swimming. Occasional BFR applications should be considered as a promising means to improve relevant performance surrogates in trained swimmers.HighlightsLow-intensity swimming with blood flow restricted (BFR) induced superior peak oxygen consumption adaptations compared to non-restricted swimming training over a 5-week lasting training periodBFR and non-BFR swimming training-induced similar adaptations regarding swimming speed at first and second lactate thresholdIn conclusion, BFR served as a feasible, promising and beneficial complementary training stimuli to traditional swimming training regarding oxygen consumption adaptations.

Modeling Players' Scanning Activity in Football.

The purpose of this study was to develop and test models of scanning activity in football. Gibson's ecological approach of visual perception and exploratory activity provided the theoretical framework for the models. The video-based data analysis consisted of 17 selected matches and 239 players of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) U17 and U19 European Championship 2018 and the UEFA U17 and U21 European Championship 2019. The results showed a positive relation between scanning frequency and successful passes, as well as changes in body orientation. Scanning frequency was also related to a player's appearances in national teams and to opponent pressure. Opponent pressure had a large effect on pass result and the player's body orientation. Previous research on the relation between scanning frequency and performance was extended by several contextual predictors. Future research should focus on gaining a deeper understanding of the relation between scanning frequency and further contextual variables related to scanning.

Speed Rope Skipping - Performance and Coordination in a Four-Limb Task.

This study investigated biomechanical characteristics of Speed Rope Skipping (RS) and estimated the contribution of the lower and upper limbs to overall performance. Lower (jumping), upper (turning), and whole-body (skipping) performance were examined in 23 rope skippers. All tests were recorded by 2 D video and nine skipping tests were performed in a 3 D motion capture system. Similar movement patterns were observed for the lower limbs in all participants, while handle trajectories differed in shape and symmetry according to performance. In general, turning unlike jumping performance was close to and significantly correlated with skipping performance. Therefore, it appears that lower extremity movement may be adapted to the limiting capacity of the upper extremity to maintain movement stability.

The Effect of Substitutions on Team Tactical Behavior in Professional Soccer.

Player substitutions are one of the main options for the coach to change tactical behavior of his team. Purpose: The present study therefore investigates the effect of player substitutions on tactical behavior in high-performance soccer using positional data. Method: The sample consisted of 659 substitutions from 234 matches played in the German Bundesliga during the season 2016-2017. Substitutions were classified either as neutral (n = 485), defensive (n = 45), or offensive (n = 129) according to the player's roles. The teams' tactical behavior before and after each substitution was analyzed using team centroid, inter-team centroid distance, team length and width, length per width (LpW) ratio, stretch index, and space control for the whole pitch and for each third as the dependent variables. Results: The linear mixed model analysis showed different effects for neutral, defensive, and offensive substitutions. Teams displayed significantly lower stretch index after defensive substitutions. LpW ratio increased with neutral and offensive substitutions, while inter-team distance decreased. The position of the team centroid, space control in the middle third and in the attacking third were also greater following an offensive substitution. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that player substitutions effectively change tactical behavior of teams. Soccer coaches should perform more offensive substitutions to elicit a higher defensive pressure and improve goal-scoring opportunities, especially due to greater space control in the attacking third. In contrast, defensive substitutions can be used to increase defensive effectiveness through increases in team compactness.

Defending in 4-4-2 or 5-3-2 formation? small differences in footballers' collective tactical behaviours.

This study explored footballers' tactical behaviours, based on their position data, as an effect of two defending formations, 4-4-2 and 5-3-2, using an experimental approach. Sixty-nine youth footballers participated in this 11-versus-11 study, performing 72 trials of attack-versus-defence. Players' position data were tracked using a local positioning system, and processed to calculate measures of collective movement. This was supplemented by the analysis of passing networks. The results showed small differences between the two conditions. Compared to a 4-4-2 formation, defending in 5-3-2 reduced dispersion (-0.69 m,p=0.012), midfield-forward distance (-0.81 m, p=0.047), and defence-forward distance (-1.29 m, p=0.038); the consequent effects on attacking teams included reduced team widths (-1.78 m, p=0.034), reduced necessity for back-passes to the goalkeeper, and less connectivity in the passing network. The effects of the two defending formations seem to have the greatest impact on fullbacks of the attacking teams, since they were main contributors of the reduced team widths, received more passes, and had higher betweenness centrality in the right-back position during 5-3-2 defending. In summary, the present study potentially demonstrates how the underlying mechanisms in players' collective movements and passing behaviours show that the 5-3-2 is more conservatively defensive than the 4-4-2.

The Dirty League: English Premier League Provides Higher Incentives for Fouling as Compared to Other European Soccer Leagues.

Fouling in soccer has been studied from an ethical standpoint as a measure of aggression. However, there is limited research related to fouling for performance. The present study investigated fouling as a factor influencing performance in European soccer leagues. Out of possession fouls (FPGNorm), yellow cards (YCFNorm), and their ratio (YCPFPG) were used as predictors of points (Pts) and goals conceded (GA) at the end of the season using three separate linear regression models. Furthermore, 5-fold cross-validation was used to measure out sample reliability. All the models significantly predicted GA and Pts (p < 0.001). Models predicting GA showed higher reliability than models predicting points. Cross validation (CV) results suggested that FPGNorm and YCPFPG models showed a small standard deviation (SD) in the R2 results whereas the results from YCFNorm were not reliable to high SD in the 5-fold CV results. In summary, FPGNorm and YCPFPG seem to predict success (low GA and high Pts) across European soccer leagues, with EPL showing the maximum effect. The findings of the current study and the methodology can be applied to an actual game analysis by coaches in multiple invasion sports. Normalizing for out of possession time is a crucial step for the time spent in particular phases of play, which has not been done in previous research while analyzing 'key performance indices' (KPIs). Normalization can successfully introduce domain-specific knowledge into predictors, which can be used in complex algorithms improving predictions and investigation of underlying mechanisms.

Scanning activity in elite youth football players.

The purpose of this study was to analyse the scanning behaviour of elite youth football players across different playing positions and age groups during high-level matches. Data was obtained by filming the 2018 UEFA European U17 and U19 Championship semi-finals and finals. A total of 53 outfield players from the four teams that reached the finals were analysed in both their respective semi-final and final matches, resulting in a total of 1686 attacking play situations. Ecological psychology provided us with the theoretical rationale for the study and informed our research hypotheses and interpretations. We found that U19 players performed more scans than U17 players. A positive relationship between scan frequency and pass success was also found. The results further suggest that opponent pressure and pitch position are both critical contextual factors that may influence scanning behaviour. In addition, central midfielders and central defenders were found to have higher scan frequencies than players in other positions. Our results support and extend previous research, suggesting that playing positions and age groups are important factors that impact visual perception and specifically scanning in football. Potential implications for coaches and recommendations for future studies are discussed.

The porous high-press? An experimental approach investigating tactical behaviours from two pressing strategies in football.

The aim of this study was to analyse footballers' tactical behaviours from their position data, as an effect of two contrasting pressing strategies, high-press defending and deep-defending, using a trial-based experimental approach. Sixty-nine youth footballers participated in this 11 versus 11 study, performing 72 trials of attack versus defence, in a counterbalanced crossover study design. Players' position data were captured using a local positioning system, and processed to calculate measures of inter-team distance, trial duration, distance to nearest opponent, dispersion, team length, team width, team shape, space control gain, inter-line distance, and individual area. This was augmented by the notational analyses of passes. The findings showed that using a high-press defending strategy leads to: closer inter-team distance; larger dispersion, due to a longer team length; and larger inter-line distances between defenders, midfielders, and forwards. The resulting effects on the attacking team include reduced ball possession time; larger individual areas for attacking midfielders and forwards; longer team length; and more penetrative passes performed. Some differences in marking behaviour were also observed. Consequently, the study recommends that high-press defending be used sparingly due to these trade-offs.

How does spectator presence affect football? Home advantage remains in European top-class football matches played without spectators during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The present paper investigates factors contributing to the home advantage, by using the exceptional opportunity to study professional football matches played in the absence of spectators due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. More than 40,000 matches before and during the pandemic, including more than 1,000 professional matches without spectators across the main European football leagues, have been analyzed. Results support the notion of a crowd-induced referee bias as the increased sanctioning of away teams disappears in the absence of spectators with regard to fouls (p < .001), yellow cards (p < .001), and red cards (p < .05). Moreover, the match dominance of home teams decreases significantly as indicated by shots (p < .001) and shots on target (p < .01). In terms of the home advantage itself, surprisingly, only a non-significant decrease is found. While the present paper supports prior research with regard to a crowd-induced referee bias, spectators thus do not seem to be the main driving factor of the home advantage. Results from amateur football, being naturally played in absence of a crowd, provide further evidence that the home advantage is predominantly caused by factors not directly or indirectly attributable to a noteworthy number of spectators.

Balance training monitoring and individual response during unstable vs. stable balance Exergaming in elderly adults: Findings from a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Exercise-based fall prevention programs mainly refer to multimodal and challenging balance exercises. Individual load monitoring and interpretations are crucial to enable adequate adaptation responses on the individual level. Thus, assessing internal responses to external stimuli throughout an intervention period need to be adequately addressed. The aim of this secondary analysis of a 3-armed randomized controlled trial was to analyze internal and external loads of unstable vs. stable balance Exergame training in healthy seniors. We intended to elucidate whether differences of external and internal load criteria occur over the intervention period. METHODS: A total of 51 healthy seniors (females: n = 34; males: n = 17; age: 69 ± 6 years; BMI: 27 ± 5) were allocated to either volitional stepping (VOL), volitional stepping under unstable conditions (VOL + US) or an inactive control group (CON). VOL and VOL + US completed 8 weeks of Exergame based step training (three weekly sessions, 45 min each) using the Dividat Senso device. Twelve different balance Exergames were used, consisting of virtual reality like video games. The original nonswinging, stable platform was employed for VOL, whereas VOL + US used an adapted Senso mounted on a swinging Posturomed Rack. The instability level was increased for VOL + US only every second week. External (game scores) and internal (perceived efforts, using the rated perceived exertion scale (RPE)) load measures were individually recorded for every session. Statistical analysis was carried out using linear mixed-effects modelling. RESULTS: Although VOL + US completed similar games at identical training volumes under unstable conditions, the achieved game scores did not significantly differ between both training groups (p = 0.71). Both intervention groups notably improved their game scores over the 8 training weeks (p < 0.01). A significant time x group interaction effect was observed for perceived effort (p < 0.01), serving as an internal load measure. Subsequent post-hoc testing revealed significant greater perceived exertion values in each of the first 7 weeks (p < 0.05) in VOL + US compared to VOL. No between-group differences were found for RPE in week 8. Whereas RPE values in VOL + US decreased over time (week 1: 4.6 ± 1.9; week 8: 3.1 ± 1.6), VOL indicated similar RPE values for all weeks (week 1: 3.1 ± 1.3; week 8: 2.9 ± 1.4). A detailed analysis of all twelve games revealed that differences in perceived exertion depend on the game content: in 75% of the involved games the RPE level was significantly higher in VOL + US compared to VOL (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Monitoring internal and external loads on individual level are paramount for gaining adequate training adaptations. Our results indicate that between-group differences in perceived efforts a) can funnel over time, b) depend on game content and c) do not necessarily affect overall scoring. Future studies should individually employ and monitor measures of perceived efforts to guarantee an adequate challenge to the balance system within exercise-based fall prevention programs.

A Systematic Review of Collective Tactical Behaviours in Football Using Positional Data.

BACKGROUND: Performance analysis research in association football has recently cusped a paradigmatic shift in the way tactical behaviours are studied. Based on insights from system complexity research, a growing number of studies now analyse tactical behaviours in football based on the collective movements of team players. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this systematic review is to provide a summary of empirical research on collective tactical behaviours in football, with a particular focus on organising the methods used and their key findings. METHODS: A systematic search of relevant English-language articles was performed on one database (Web of Science Core Collection) and one search engine (PubMed), based on PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) guidelines. The keywords 'football' and 'soccer' were each paired with all possible combinations of the following keywords: 'collective movement behaviour', 'collective behaviour', 'tactical behaviour', 'interpersonal coordination', 'space', 'Voronoi', 'synchronisation', 'tactical analysis', 'constraints', 'ecological dynamics', and 'dynamic positioning'. Empirical studies that were related to tactical analyses of footballers' positional data were sought for inclusion and analysis. RESULTS: Full-text articles of 77 studies were reviewed. A total of 27 tactical variables were identified, which were subsequently organised into 6 categories. In addition to conventional methods of linear analysis, 11 methods of nonlinear analysis were also used, which can be organised into measures of predictability (4 methods) and synchronisation (7 methods). The key findings of the reviewed studies were organised into two themes: levels of analysis, and levels of expertise. CONCLUSIONS: Some trends in key findings revealed the following collective behaviours as possible indicators of better tactical expertise: higher movement regularity; wider dispersion in youth players and shorter readjustment delay between teammates and opponents. Characteristic behaviours were also observed as an effect of playing position, numerical inequality, and task constraints. Future research should focus on contextualising positional data, incorporating the needs of coaching staff, to better bridge the research-practice gap.

A tactical comparison of the 4-2-3-1 and 3-5-2 formation in soccer: A theory-oriented, experimental approach based on positional data in an 11 vs. 11 game set-up.

The presented field experiment in an 11 vs. 11 soccer game set-up is the first to examine the impact of different formations (e.g. 4-2-3-1 vs. 3-5-2) on tactical key performance indicators (KPIs) using positional data in a controlled experiment. The data were gathered using player tracking systems (1 Hz) in a standardized 11 vs. 11 soccer game. The KPIs were measured using dynamical positioning variables like Effective Playing Space, Player Length per Width ratio, Team Separateness, Space Control Gain, and Pressure Passing Efficiency. Within the experimental positional data analysis paradigm, neither of the team formations showed differences in Effective Playing Space, Team Separateness, or Space Control Gain. However, as a theory-based approach predicted, a 3-5-2 formation for the Player Length per Width ratio and Pressure Passing Efficiency exceeded the 4-2-3-1 formation. Practice task designs which manipulate team formations therefore significantly influence the emergent behavioral dynamics and need to be considered when planning and monitoring performance. Accordingly, an experimental positional data analysis paradigm is a useful approach to enable the development and validation of theory-oriented models in the area of performance analysis in sports games.

Bearded capuchin monkeys use joint synergies to stabilize the hammer trajectory while cracking nuts in bipedal stance.

The transition from occasional to obligate bipedalism is a milestone in human evolution. However, because the fossil record is fragmentary and reconstructing behaviour from fossils is difficult, changes in the motor control strategies that accompanied this transition remain unknown. Quadrupedal primates that adopt a bipedal stance while using percussive tools provide a unique reference point to clarify one aspect of this transition, which is maintaining bipedal stance while handling massive objects. We found that while cracking nuts using massive stone hammers, wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus) produce hammer trajectories with highly repeatable spatial profiles. Using an uncontrolled manifold analysis, we show that the monkeys used strong joint synergies to stabilize the hammer trajectory while lifting and lowering heavy hammers. The monkeys stringently controlled the motion of the foot. They controlled the motion of the lower arm and hand rather loosely, showing a greater variability across strikes. Overall, our findings indicate that while standing bipedally to lift and lower massive hammers, an arboreal quadrupedal primate must control motion in the joints of the lower body more stringently than motion in the joints of the upper body. Similar changes in the structure of motor variability required to accomplish this goal could have accompanied the evolutionary transition from occasional to obligate bipedalism in ancestral hominins.

"Which pass is better?" Novel approaches to assess passing effectiveness in elite soccer.

Passing behaviour is a key property of successful performance in team sports. Previous investigations however have mainly focused on notational measurements like total passing frequencies which provide little information about what actually constitutes successful passing behaviour. Consequently, this has hampered the transfer of research findings into applied settings. Here we present two novel approaches to assess passing effectiveness in elite soccer by evaluating their effects on majority situations and space control in front of the goal. Majority situations are assessed by calculating the number of defenders between the ball carrier and the goal. Control of space is estimated using Voronoi-diagrams based on the player's positions on the pitch. Both methods were applied to position data from 103 German First division games from the 2011/2012, 2012/2013 and 2014/2015 seasons using a big data approach. The results show that both measures are significantly related to successful game play with respect to the number of goals scored and to the probability of winning a game. The results further show that on average passes from the mid-field into the attacking area are most effective. The presented passing efficiency measures thereby offer new opportunities for future applications in soccer and other sports disciplines whilst maintaining practical relevance with respect to tactical training regimes or game performances analysis.